4.0       THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

4.1              Water Quality

Kingston Harbour and Hunts Bay are known to receive low quality run-off from gullies as well as poorly treated sewage and industrial waste. In addition the harbour is affected by oil spills associated with operations of the Petrojam refinery and shipping in general [1]. These factors are likely to contribute to the quality of sediment to be dredged.

In the case of marine disposal, as spoil descends through the water column some pollutants (e.g. hydrogen sulphide) may be leached, leading to increased ambient concentrations. In dispersive waters these increases are usually rapidly diluted. In small estuaries and sheltered coastal waters however, such leaching may adversely affect organisms in the water column. It appears to be rare however for pelagic organisms to bioacumulate metals and organic chemicals released from contaminated dredged material although detecting such impacts and attributing them to a particular waste type is difficult [2].  

4.1.1    Discussion of Significance of Indicator Parameters

Total Suspended Solids (TSS): Solids settle under quiescent conditions and can directly smother reefs and coastal vegetation, while excess nutrients (especially nitrates and phosphates) promote the growth of algae which can eventually have the same smothering effect. The Draft National Policy for the Conservation of Coral Reefs (3) which mirrors international standards for coral reef protection, contains the following proposed criteria:

                        1.         Nitrogen (< .1 mg/l NO3) 

                        2.         Phosphorous (< .01 mg/l o-PO₄)

                        3.         Suspended Solids (< 10mg/l)

The ambient marine water quality standard proposed by the NRCA for phosphate is 0.001 - 0.055mg/l, while the range proposed for nitrate is 0.001 - 0.081mg/l.  Recent work out of UWI has indicated an annual average nitrate level in Hunts Bay (near the causeway) of 0.5mg/l at the surface and 0.2mg/l at the bottom of the water column. Average phosphate level over the same period was determined to be 0.04mg/l at the same site (4). In the vicinity of the channel, a nitrate level of 0.1mg/l and phosphate < 0.05mg/l has been indicated from recent work (1).

Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and cadmium (Cd) are present in trace quantities in the environment, but due to pollution sources, may be expected to become concentrated in the sediments of harbours. Locally, the use of leaded gasoline for decades, in addition to little control over potential sources such as the final disposal of industrial waste may contribute to the build up of lead in sediment which reaches the coast via numerous paved and unpaved gullies.

A previous study (5) indicated levels for these parameters in Kingston Harbour as follows:

                        Pb        -           1 -  6.0 Fg/L (ppb)    

                        Cr        -           0.6 – 13.0 Fg/L          

                        Cu        -           0.1 -  5.0 Fg/L           

                        Cd       -           0 -  4.0 Fg/L

There are no local ambient standards for these trace metals, but effluent standards have recently been established (6). These may provide a point of reference for the evaluation of sediment quality.  Table 2 gives USEPA criteria maximum concentrations (CMC), and criterion continuous concentrations (CCC) for the selected trace metals in water (7) as well as NRCA’s interim effluent standards. In addition, reference is made to recently developed USEPA criteria for classification of hazardous waste based on the level of a number of contaminants, among them, lead, chromium, and cadmium. (Table 3).    

Table 2:          USEPA Water Quality Criteria (Saltwater) & NRCA Interim Effluent Standards For Selected Trace Metals

The potential impact of lead on human health has been well documented and is summarised in the USEPA Fact Sheet (8). These however relate mainly to long term exposure to levels above the USEPA action level (> 0.015 mg/L in more than 10 percent of tap water samples). Lead does not appear to bioconcentrate significantly in fish but does in some shellfish such as mussels. Evidence suggests (8) that lead uptake in fish is localised in the mucous on the epidermis, the dermis, and scales so that the availability in edible portions does not pose a human health danger.

Most of the chromium in soil can attach strongly and does not dissolve easily in water (9). Although most of the chromium in water binds to dirt and other materials and settles to the bottom, a small amount may dissolve in the water.

Soil generally contains between 2 and 250 ppm copper, while the average concentration of copper in lakes and rivers is 4 ppb. Lakes and reservoirs recently treated with copper compounds to control algae or receive cooling water from a power plant may have high concentrations of dissolved copper. Once in natural water, much of this copper soon attaches to particles or converts to forms that cannot easily enter the body [10].

Cadmium is usually found as a mineral combined with other elements such as oxygen (cadmium oxide), chlorine (cadmium chloride), or sulphur (cadmium sulphate, cadmium sulphide). These compounds may dissolve in water but do not evaporate or disappear from the environment. All soils and rocks, including coal and mineral fertilisers, have some cadmium in them. The level of cadmium in most drinking water supplies is less than 1 ppb.

Table 3: Maximum Concentration of Contaminants For the Toxicity Characteristic

¹ Hazardous waste number.

² Chemical Abstracts Service number.

³ Quantitation limit is greater than the calculated regulatory level. The quantitation limit therefore becomes the regulatory level.

⁴ If o-, m-, and p-Cresol concentrations cannot be differentiated, the total cresol (D026) concentration is used. The regulatory level of total cresol is 200 mg/l.

[55 FR 11862, Mar. 29, 1990, as amended at 55 FR 22684, June 1, 1990; 55 FR 26987, June 29,

1990; 58 FR 46049, Aug. 31, 1993]

Subpart D-Lists of Hazardous Wastes

Source: Environmental Protection Agency - Federal Register: July 1, 1996, Part 5. 40 Cfr Part 257, Et Al. Criteria For Classification Of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities And Practices; Identification And Listing Of Hazardous Waste.

Cadmium has many uses in industry and consumer products such as batteries, pigments, metal coatings, and plastics, and is also found in fertilisers.

Cadmium in soil can enter water or be absorbed by plants. Fish, plants, and animals take up cadmium from the environment. Cadmium is found at hazardous waste sites at average concentrations of about 4 ppb in soil and 5 ppb in water. The human body keeps most cadmium in a form that is not harmful, but too much cadmium can overload the kidneys' storage system and cause health problems (e.g. kidney damage, and fragile bones) (11).

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the total amount of oxidisable material in a sample. By using a strong oxidising material, non-biodegradable and recalcitrant (slowly degrading compounds) which are not detected in the BOD test are included in COD determination. The NRCA stream loading effluent standard for COD is 100mg/l.

Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is one of the most important indices in the assessment of biodegradable organic water pollutants. Dredged sediment can be a significant source of BOD depending on the quantity of biodegradable material present. The NRCA stream loading effluent standard for BOD is <30mg/l and proposed draft ambient standard for this parameter is <1.7mg/l. Recent work by TEMN [1] has determined BOD levels of 0mg/l to 2mg/l in Kingston Harbour in an area covering the Petrojam loading facility in the east to Gordon Cay in the west. 

The level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water dictates to a great extent the purpose for which it may be used, and in general gives an idea of the quality of the water (12). Waters in which all the oxygen has been used up appear dark in colour and have a foul odour. By exerting a BOD, dredged material can theoretically result in reduction of DO in overlying waters.  

In aerobic organisms oxygen insufficiency results in reduction in cellular energy and a subsequent loss of ion balance in cellular and circulatory fluids. If oxygen insufficiency persists, death will ultimately occur, although some aerobic animals also possess anaerobic metabolic pathways, which can delay lethality for short time periods (minutes to days). Anaerobiosis is well developed in some benthic animals, such as bivalve molluscs and polychaetes, but not in other groups, like fish and crustaceans (13). There is no evidence that any free-living animal inhabiting coastal or estuarine waters can live without oxygen indefinitely. The USEPA’s minimum concentration for saltwater dissolved oxygen criteria (14) (CMC), to ensure juvenile and adult survival is 2.3mg/l. The criterion continuous concentration (CCC) to ensure maximum growth effects is 4.8mg/l.

Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) is a poisonous gas and a by-product of anaerobic (without-oxygen) decomposition of organic material. Un-ionised H₂S is the sulfide form considered the most toxic to aquatic fauna [15]. The USEPA saltwater criteria continuous concentration (CCC) for H₂S is 2.0l mg/l (7).

Organically enriched substrates such as those likely to be encountered in the harbour are essential to the energetics of benthic communities. However, harmful conditions may also arise as toxic metabolic byproducts (e.g., hydrogen sulfide) accumulate to excessive levels from decomposition of excess organic material. Literature review indicates effects on survival in 12 species of marine invertebrates (including a clam and two species of amphipods) at concentrations of 48 to > 50,098 mg/L. Effects on survival of two species of marine fishes also were reported at 17,892 - 23,856 mg/L (16).

Given the many sources of storm water run-off to Kingston Harbour, it was considered possible for the dredged sediment to contain significant amounts of the more persistent pesticides such as the organochlorines. It was also considered possible that deeper sediment could have residual levels of persistent pesticides no longer in use such as known carcinogens DDT and chlordane.

Some coliform bacteria occur naturally in soil while faecal coliform is an indicator of the presence of faecal mammalian waste. Given the discharge of raw sewage to the harbour, it was considered likely that faecal coliform would be detected in the water column.

4.1.2    Results and Observations

Water quality data collected at sites to be dredged are presented in Table 4. The results of sediment, and leachate/pore water analyses are presented in Table 5. Trace metals were determined at the parts per billion level in water samples, and at the parts per million level in sediment, leachate, and pore water. Sediment and ‘pore water’ samples collected in the channel and Hunts Bay had a strong odour of ‘rotten egg’ (hydrogen sulphide gas).

4.1.2.1 Water Chemistry Results

Trace metals

Copper and cadmium were absent from all water samples. However lead and chromium were determined to be present at much higher concentrations than detected through previous work in the harbour. 

Table 4:  Water Quality Data - Port Authority- Kingston Transhipment Port Expansion EIA

All measurements in mg/L unless otherwise stated

Table 5:  Sediment/Pore water/ Leachate Quality Data – Port Authority Kingston Transhipment Port Expansion EIA

The distribution of lead in the water column at stations established for this study is presented in Figure 4. Concentration of lead at all stations was determined to be in the range 26 ppb to 3142 ppb. The highest values were determined for the sample collected at Station 4 - Gordon Cay Bottom (3142 ppb), and Station 3 - the channel near Fort Augusta (2134 ppb). The lowest concentration of lead (26 ppb) was determined for the surface sample taken at Station 2 - the channel near Port Royal. Background level at Station 1 – 300m contour south of the Palisadoes strip near the gypsum loading pier (Figure 1) was also significant in surface and sub-surface samples (376 ppb and 236 ppb respectively). 

Distribution of total chromium is represented in Figure 5. Chromium concentration for all stations monitored was in the range 166ppb to 2262 ppb, the highest value being recorded for the sub-surface sample taken at Station 4B - the turning basin (near Gordon Cay).

Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) levels at the stations monitored are illustrated in Figure 6. DO was determined to be in the range 4.6mg/l to 8.8mg/l at all stations monitored. The highest level was determined at the surface for Station 4 - near Gordon Cay. Sub-surface waters at this site also had the lowest DO concentration.

Temperature

Figure 7 is a histogram of temperature measurements. Temperature was determined to be in the range 25^oC to 28^oC with temperature in the deep sample being 0.5^o C to 1.0^oC below that at the surface. The exceptions were Stations 2 - the channel near Port Royal, and Station 5 - Hunts Bay near the causeway. At Station 2 subsurface temperature was 28^oC while at the surface it was 26^oC. At Station 5 sub-surface temperature was 27.5^oC while at the surface it was 27^oC.   

Nutrients

Nitrate (NO₃) distribution at the sampling sites is shown in Figure 8. With the exception of the sample collected from surface water at the Hunts Bay site (Station 5T) nitrate was determined to be 0.1mg/l. At Station 5T NO₃ was determined to be 0.4mg/l.

Phosphate (PO₄) distribution is shown in Figure 9. Phosphate level was determined to be .05mg/l or less at most stations. The exception was Station 5 - Hunts Bay where PO₄ was determined to be 0.1mg/l in samples taken from the surface and bottom of the water column.   

Suspended Solids/Turbidity

Suspended solids and turbidity were low at all sites monitored (Figures 10, and 11). Suspended solids were determined to be in the range 0 - 7mg/l, while turbidity was 0 - 8NTU.

Coliform

No Faecal coliform bacteria were detected in any of the samples. Low levels of total coliform were indicated in samples from Station 4 - Gordon Cay and, Station 5 - Hunts Bay. Samples from these sites were determined to have total coliform of 1MPN and 7MPN respectively.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD concentrations at the sampling sites are shown in Figure 12. BOD was determined to be in the range 18mg/l to 27mg/l at all sites monitored. The highest value was detected for Stations 4 (Gordon Cay), and 5 (Hunts Bay), in the sub-surface samples. The other values in that range were detected for Station 1 (TOP) - south of Palisadoes (26.4mg/l) and Station 5 (Top) - Hunts Bay (26.2mg/l).

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD measurements ranged widely (23 - 818mg/l).  The interference of chloride with the analytical method for the determination of this parameter limits its use as an indicator.

4.1.2.2             Sediment Chemistry Results

The results of sediment analysis and corresponding leachate analyses are presented in Table 5. Concentrations in sediment were determined on a dry weight basis, and water content for each sample was determined. With one exception, cadmium and copper were absent from all sediment samples. The exception was the sample taken at Station 5 - Hunts Bay that had no cadmium but was determined to have a copper concentration of 13.57ppm. Biological oxygen demand (BOD),

chemical oxygen demand (COD), and sulphide concentrations were significant in all samples. All samples exhibited a strong ‘rotten egg’ (hydrogen sulphide) odour.

Trace metals

Lead in sediment was determined to be in the range 44ppm - 97ppm. The lowest value was determined at Station 3 - Ship Channel near Fort Augusta. The highest value was determined in sediment from the Hunts Bay site (Station 5), while at Station 4 (near Gordon Cay) lead in sediment was 74.63ppm. Lead in leachate was determined to be in the range 60ppm - 68ppm. The lowest value was determined at Station 4 - near Gordon Cay, while the highest value was found at Station 5 - Hunts Bay.  At Station 3, lead in leachate was determined to be 62 ppm, and at Station 4 was determined to be 60ppm.

Lead in pore water was determined to be 0.175ppm at Station 4 (Gordon Cay), and 1.4ppm at Station 5 (Hunts Bay).

Chromium in sediment was determined to be 5ppm and 96ppm at Stations 3, and 5 respectively, while at Station 4 it was 6ppm. Chromium in leachate from Station 3 was 37ppm, at Station 4 it was 96ppm, and for Station 5 it was 6ppm. Pore water from Station 4 was determined to have a chromium concentration of 0.2ppm, while at Station 5 it was 0.4ppm.

Sulphide

Sulphide was determined to be 600ppm at Station 3 - channel near Ft. Augusta, 570ppm at Station 4 - Gordon Cay, and 700ppm at Station 5 - Hunts Bay. Pore water at Station 4 was determined to have a sulphide content of 99ppm, while at Station 5 sulphide in pore water was 88ppm.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD of wet sediment from Station 3 was determined to be 1230mg/l, at Station 4 it was 1040mg/l, and at Station 5 it was 1140mg/l.   Leachate produced an equal or higher BOD than the respective sediment. At Station 3 leachate had a BOD of 1230mg/l, at Station 4 it was 1410mg/l, and at Station 5 leachate BOD was 1620mg/l.

Organics

Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) analysis did not indicate the presence of any pesticide residues in the sediment samples examined. However the presence of at least two hydrocarbons were indicated. These were 17-Pentatriacontine, (found at Station 3), Benzene 1-pentylheptyl, and Benzene 1-butylheptyl. The latter two were detected at Station 5.

4.2       Ecology 

4.2.1    The Hunts Bay Habitat

The Hunts Bay area connects to the north-western portion of the harbour and consists of a shallow basin approximately 10 Km ² in area with an average depth of 2.5m. The sediments generally consist of soft mud and the overlying waters experience regular and considerable changes in salinity, nutrient and contaminant levels due to inputs from the various rivers and drainage gullies that enter into it.   Sources of these nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) and pollutants include fertilisers and insecticides used in agricultural activities upstream of the bay. The movement of layers of water with different salinities is modified by the restriction to outflow of water from the bay caused by the presence of a solid-fill Causeway with a narrow opening across the mouth of the bay. This counter clockwise circulation pattern within the bay (documented by UWI and Government of Jamaica researchers) appears to facilitate the retention and resultant stagnation of water masses in the general vicinity of the north eastern corner of the bay. This retention is reinforced during dry weather conditions and relaxes somewhat during the rainy season. The increased volume of water flowing into the bay during this time was reported to facilitate some limited flushing of this area of the bay and conditions improve for a short while before dry weather imposes itself on the cyclic hydrodynamics of the bay again. Most of the fishing activities are therefore concentrated in the middle and western portions of Hunts Bay. The results of a recent study (Webber, 1993) indicate that Hunts Bay may be even more impacted and degraded than other waters to be found in Kingston Harbour.

Studies on marine shrimps in Kingston Harbour by Chin (1994) indicated that at least two species lived for most of their life cycle in Hunts Bay and other western harbour muddy-bottomed areas. Further, Chin reported that shrimp regularly provided income for fishers operating from the Causeway  bridge ("Helsinki") area.

Submerged  transects 1, 2 & 3 (Figure 3) in Hunts Bay, had a thick layer of dense, anoxic mud. At a depth of 1.5m the visibility in the water column was 0.1 m. The substrate appeared to be abiotic and no fish or crustaceans were seen in the water column above or crawling on the mud bottom. This lack of faunal movement on or above the sediment could have been due in part to the high turbidity levels observed during the field visits.

Terrestrial transect No. 4 (Figure 3) demonstrated an impacted site that contained sparse grasses, shrubby vegetation as well as Seaside Mahoe and Mimosa trees on its landward margins towards the main road. This vegetation mixed with an associes of mature Black and White mangrove trees as one moved towards the perimeter of Hunts Bay. The shoreline was dried and no evidence of Red Mangroves was noted which would have been indicative of a healthier environment seeking to expand its boundaries into variably saline waters of the bay.

4.2.2    Hunts Bay Avifauna

At least sixteen (16) species of seabirds and colonial water birds were found in the mangroves and open waters of Kingston Harbour.  The harbour was an important nesting area for two species of regional conservation concern, namely the Brown Pelican and the Magnificent Frigate Bird.  Both species nested colonially in the mangrove trees around the harbour.  Both species were also common in the Hunts Bay area where they congregated around the area of activity associated with the small fishing communities taking offal and other “handouts” opportunistically.  The breeding status of these species in this section of the harbour was not known at the time of this study. They appeared to nest in the mangrove trees on the western side of the bay. No nesting or roosting activity was noted in the stand of mangroves on the eastern side of the bay that would be affected by reclamation activities.

Besides the nesting species, the area was an important roosting and feeding area for three (3) other species of regional conservation concern as is presented in the table (see Appendix 2).  The harbour area was also an important over-wintering site for Laughing Gulls (Larus atricilla), a species known to be uncommon in the wider Caribbean during the winter.   Laughing Gulls nested on the Port Royal cays where the number of nesting pairs were reportedly small.

Apart from the previously mentioned species, all of which are seabirds, the mangroves of the western Hunts Bay area were also populated by several other species - primarily herons and egrets some of which nested in the mangroves in the vicinity. 

 A list of the species of Rail, Ibis, Herons and Egrets observed within this area in the recent times is given below:

Green Backed Heron**

Little Blue Heron **

Cattle Egret **

Snowy Egret **

Great Egret

Great Blue Heron

Yellow-crowned Night Heron**

Black-crowned Night Heron**

Tricolored Heron

White Ibis**

Clapper Rail**

NB: species marked by asterisks (**) breed in the area.

All the above species were considered to be relatively common in suitable habitat, with the exception of the White Ibis, which was rare.   The White Ibis is known to nest on the Palisados side of Kingston Harbour in the mangroves.   Great Blue Herons are winter visitors to the area during which time they are relatively rare.

4.2.3    The Kingston Harbour Habitat

This natural embayment receives approximately 114 million litres (30 million gallons) of raw or partially treated sewage per day. It has also been subjected to repeated episodes of major dredging activity at various locations within its confines. Beginning in 1956, dredging activities were part of the construction techniques used in the conversion of a Royal Navy airbase to a commercial facility known as the Norman Manley International Airport. In 1969, dredging activities were also a part of the construction of the Causeway used to create a direct road link between the city of Kingston and the adjacent communities including Hellshire, Portmore and Braeton.  The establishment of Gordon Cay and the Rockfort Power Plant facilities, improving the port facilities at the Cement Company in the early and mid-nineties also required periods of extensive dredging activity in Kingston Harbour.  Repeated maintenance dredging of the ship channel in the vicinity of Two Sisters, Burial Ground and Greenwich Buoys and at Berths 8 & 9 has been carried out during the last ten to fifteen years.

Initial studies by Wade et al in the mid-seventies documented the degraded state of the benthos in both the inner and the outer harbour as a result of its function as a receiving body for numerous storm water, industrial waste and municipal sewage out-falls over the years. More recent studies by investigators from the University of the West Indies, as well as Government contractors hired to assess the status of the harbour, have confirmed these initial findings.  Anecdotal reports have been received over the years of significant mortality affecting the population of mussels that apparently once thrived on the mud floor of the harbour. An extensive area, ranging from Gunboat Beach in the east across Asprey Shallows and the Five Foot channel to the Two Sisters Buoy and north as far as the Pickering light, experienced mass mortalities of the mussel population. These episodes of mortality were reported to have been directly related to at least the first three to four of the earlier periods of dredging. Spoil was discharged within the confines of the harbour and large expanses of muddy water that wafted back and forth with the slow moving currents were reportedly observed by the fishermen in and around their commonly used fishing grounds.  More recent dredging exercises that involved the disposal at sites outside the harbour, but still relatively close to the coastline, were reported to have affected the normal migration routes of fishes such as the red snapper for a period of two years. Nets used by the fishermen at depths of 16-20 fathoms were also negatively impacted by the mud and they reportedly had to go further out to sea or move further east along the coastline to maintain catch levels.

Marine transects 5 & 6 (Gordon Cay) and 7 & 8 (Ships Channel) (Figure 3) were also indicative of low diversity, highly stressed environments. Visibility was only slightly better at 0.3m - 0.5m, and no fauna were observed in the water column or on the substrate at any of these stations. Substrate composition was thick mud with a few small holes indicating the presence of burrowing polychaetes. These stations were noted to be subject to repeated disturbance from construction and maintenance dredging activities as well as prop wash from manoeuvring ships.

4.2.4    Kingston Harbour Fishery

While the ecological linkages between magroves, seagrasses and related fishes in Kingston harbour were first described by Goodbody (1969), the role of Kingston Harbour mangroves as nurseries for fishable resources (fishes, spiny lobster, shrimps and conch) has been investigated only to a very limited extent (Tolan & Aiken, unpublished). What was found in nursery research was that there were at least 15 species of fishes repetitively associated with the Port Royal mangroves and the adjacent seagrass beds over the study period (1990-1992). Fishes were dominated by the silverside (Atherinidae), dusky anchovies (Engraulidae), sea bream (Archosargus rhomboidalis, family Sparidae, maccabacks (Gerreidae), porcupine fishes (Diodontidae), parrotfishes (Scaridae) and wrasses (Labridae). Most of these fish were not true coral reef fishes, but were more associated with mangroves and shallow lagoons. Commonly found were crustaceans such as spiny lobster (Palinuridae) from visual censuses and in catches. Two penaeid shrimp species (Penaeus schmittii and P. duorarum) were found to use muddy parts of the Port Royal mangroves as nursery areas (Tolan & Aiken, unpub. data).  In Kingston Harbour, the major habitats for fishes were in the mangrove and seagrass beds which, in recent times, at least, have been located adjacent to Port Royal and the outer (western) harbour.  Catches in the harbour (whatever the fishing gear employed) tended to be dominated by small coastal pelagic fish species.

Catches dominated by thread herring were taken by gill nets from the harbour (Harvey, 1986, Goodbody, 1986). Thread herring from inside the harbour were significantly smaller than those from outside, suggesting that these protected waters acted as a large nursery for at least this species.  Harvey (1986) also found that this was the case for other sprat and herring species as well. Some used the harbour as spawning sites and for feeding and fattening before attaining first sexual maturity.

In one of the first studies of fish nurseries in Jamaica, Ross (1982) examined a number of south coast sites, including the Port Royal mangroves and parts of the Port Royal Cays complex, among others. He found that fishes such as the maccaback (Gerreidae) species (Eucinostomus argenteus and Gerres cinereus) were the most abundant and dominant species and that overall species diversity was relatively low. Other common species at the time were the snook (Centropomus undecimalis) and schoolmaster snapper and grey snapper (Lutjanidae). The study also suggested that at that time, the density of juvenile fishes in the Port Royal mangroves was relatively high (1.4/m²) compared with the five other study sites elsewhere to the west of Kingston.

Fishable resources located within sectors H5, H4 and H3 (Figure 1) were found to be minimal or even negligible. This conclusion is based on the fact that these areas arre located in the busiest part of the western part of the container port facility.  Additionally, these same areas were themselves previously dredged in the development of the port in the late 1960s and again in the mid-1970s for the construction of Gordon Cay.  As a result, the only surviving fishable resources since those times would have been located in the water column itself, for example, the occasional roving small pelagic fish such as sprats and herring (Clupeidae), leatherjacket jacks (Carangidae). All those resources on and in the substrate would have disappeared with the dredging at that time.  None of these areas enumerated above have functioned, since the dredging, as fish or crustacean nursery grounds.  These substrates are characterized by mud, sand and seagrasses and probably function as minor nursery areas for marine shrimp, spiny lobsters and fishes, along with other shallow areas to the east of them such as Mammee Shoal and the adjacent mangroves. The use of the prefix "minor" nursery area is centred on the observation that the specified areas (H3-H1) (Figure 1) are on the western fringe of the major shallow water nurseries nearby, and are within the Port Royal mangrove complex.

Recent studies of the benthos in the channel itself report that infaunal species diversity and numbers remain low (density of organisms approximately 0 - 2 per 0.1 sq. m) and typical of a highly stressed environment. Burrowing polychaete worms (Sabella spp.) seemed to be the only benthic animal to tolerate this environment with any measure of success for any length of time. The sediments in the main turning basin were found to be sandy silty red brown clay while at Greenwich they were grey sandy silt changing to silty sandy gravel at the Two Sisters & Burial Ground channel marker buoys.

Species diversity increased slightly on the sides of the channel.  This, as the substrate changed from mud to sand especially in the shallower areas as the light and oxygen saturation levels in the water column improved.

4.2.5    Rackham’s Cay Habitiat

This small cay lies outside the harbour along the southern border of the East Ship Channel and consists of a semi submerged sand bar that is surrounded by extensive seagrass beds along its sheltered western and southern margins and coral rubble on its exposed eastern and northern margins in shallow water. In deeper water (>18m) the communities of sea urchins, gorgonians (sea fans), small coral heads and thickets of branching corals give way to a mud bottom on the steeply sloping sides of the ship channel.  Fishermen claim to use the shallow water around Rackham’s Cay as a source of bait (silversides/white fry, juvenile sprats and herring) for their major fishing activity - trolling with a hook and line.

Trnsects 9 & 10 at Rackham’s Cay were indicative of a relatively healthy marine environment.  As one moved north to south, from 18m depth up the slope into shallow water, perpendicular to the ship channel at least two reef environments were noted. At maximum depth the substrate was a steep slope consisting primarily of muddy sediments bearing the occasional whip gorgonian. Moving towards the surface (and shallow water) a series of relatively steep slopes and flat terraces ensued.

At 16m depth a muddy slope exhibited a substrate composition as follows:-

Bare Substrate -             85%

Coral                            -               2%

Algae                           -             10%

Seagrass                       -               0%

Macro fauna                 -               3%

Sponges                       -                0%

Main corals seen were largely solitary species adapted to higly turbid waters (such as Eusmilia ffastigiata, Mycetophyllia sp. and flattened Agaricia sp) (Appendix 2, Photo’s # 1-4). The gorgonians were represented by specimens of G. ventalina and G. flabellum  spp.  A few angel fish were also noted along with conch and lobster.

At 12m depth a flat terrace exhibited a substrate composition as follows:-

Bare Substrate -             75%

Coral                            -               5%

Algae                           -             10%

Seagrass                       -               0%

Macro fauna                 -               5%

Sponges                       -                5%

Main corals seen were Siderastrea siderea and Solenastrea sp.

This continued up another steep slope passing through 11m depth until another flat terrace was encountered at 7m depth.

Substrate composition was as follows:-

Bare Substrate -             55%

Coral                            -               5%

Algae                           -             18%

Seagrass                       -               9%

Macro fauna                 -               8%

Sponges                       -                5%

Main corals seen were M. annularis and cavernosa spp., Porites porites, Madracis mirabilis, star coral – Siderastrea spp., Brain coral – Diploria spp. and Acropora cervicornis (Appendix 2, Photos # 5-10). Several apparently intact cylinders of compressed industrial gas were noted lying on the bottom (Appendix 2, Photos # 11-12) in the vicinity of the Rackhams Cay navigational marker. These were felt to constitute an unusual hazard and would have to be moved before any dredging activities begin.

Moving east to west in transects 8-10 in shallow water (1-3m water depth), a rampart of Acropora palmata rubble interspersed with live A. cervicornis and A. palmata were noted on the windward side of the cay (Appendix 2, Photo’s # 13-15).

Substrate composition was as follows:-

Bare Substrate -             35%

Coral                            -             25%

Algae                           -             20%

Seagrass                       -               0%

Macro fauna                 -               13%

Sponges                       -               7%

This gave way to rubble interspersed with seagrass, gorgonians (sea fans), algal mats (Halimeda and Dictyota species) and urchins (Diadema antillarum  - 10 per sq .m.) as one passed nearest to the ship channel. On the leeward side of the Cay a much denser coverage of turtlegrass (Appendix 2, Photo’s # 16 - 17) was found and urchin densities were even higher (12 per sq.m).

Substrate composition was as follows:-

Bare Substrate -             30%

Coral                            -             10%

Algae                           -             20%

Seagrass                       -             25%

Macro fauna                 -             10%

Sponges                       -               5%

4.2.6    Gun Cay Habitat

Transect 11 at the Gun Cay Station  (5-7m depth) was rather similar to comparable depths at  the Rackham’s Cay  transect in terms of coral cover and algae compared to the amount of  bare substrate at this station

Substrate composition was as follows:-

Bare Substrate -             50%

Coral                            -               5%

Algae                           -             20%

Seagrass                       -               0%

Macro fauna                 -             15%

Sponges                       -              10%

Relativey large stands of Acropora spp. coral were noted alongside patches  of rubble comprised mainly of these same species of coral but urchin (D. antillarum) density was not as high (3 - 4 per sq. m)

4.2.7    Eastern Ship Channel Habitat

Transect 12 at the Farewell/ Sea Buoy was apparently much healthier than the shallow water stations closer to Port Royal. Despite an obvious scarcity of urchins at this depth, a wide sandy plain supported patch reefs where the coral, sponge and gorgonian cover was significantly higher while the algae were much reduced

Substrate composition was as follows:-

Bare Substrate -               5%

Coral                            -             25%

Algae                           -               5%

Seagrass                       -               0%

Macro fauna                 -             35%

Sponges                       -              30%

The corals at this depth were apparently quite healthy with no sign of the usual diseases (black band or yellow band) found in some shallow water specimens.

4.3       Coastal Dynamics

Kingston Harbour is bounded on the south by the Palisadoes (a narrow sand spit linking a number of limestone knolls) which acts as a natural breakwater and shelters the harbour from the open sea. The harbour occupies an area of over 50 sq km, and has a maximum depth of approximately 14 metres. Currents are mainly density (fresh water vs. salt water), tidal and wind driven. Tidal variations are of the order of 0.3m.

Previous studies have shown that circulation in the harbour has to be considered on the basis of different zones and layers of water masses because different areas are affected to a greater degree by a combination of the above driving forces.

A recent thesis (Williams, 1997) gives a comprehensive outline of the interaction of the three major driving forces (density, wind and tide) of currents in the harbour.

The study concluded that circulation in the harbour is dependent on the characteristics of currents in the varying zones and layers of water masses that exist.  Based on the bathymetric survey, the harbour was divided into two lobes (inner and outer).  This was supported by the fact that the shallower regions of the inner harbour were influenced by circulation in the outer harbour.

Density was the main factor controlling the circulation patterns in the outer lobe, especially in the surface layer. During the dry season water leaving Hunts Bay radiates in both easterly and westerly directions. However, during the wet season, with high fresh water input, the depth of the density driven layer increased in the outer lobe. At times, wind would become a more controlling factor than density, increasing vertical mixing and influenced the formation of gyres.

Tidal currents in Kingston Harbour were important primarily in the bottom layers, and their effects were seen at a depth of 3 m and below.  It was evident that during both ebb and flood tides there was predominantly outward flow in the surface layer.  Occasionally, water would enter the harbour on the flood tide in the surface layer.

In the inner lobe, circulation patterns were governed chiefly by wind which:

·        Influenced increased vertical circulation,

·        effecting upwelling along the Palisadoes spit in the upper basin

·        contributed to the formation of gyres in the upper basin

Also, within the inner lobe, the tidal currents were effective in the deep rather than surface layers.

Compared to previous studies, flushing time of the harbour increased significantly, while retention times were similar.

4.4       Socio-economic Assessment

4.4.1    Demography

The KMA is the primate urban centre in Jamaica, accounting for 56% of the total urban population. Using a nominal rate of growth of 1%, the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) estimated that the KMA population would increase to 600,500 persons by the year 2000 with an average household size of 4.6 persons. The sex ratio (male: female) was almost 1:1.

In 1971, there were just over 6,000 people living in Portmore (including the Causeway). By 1991 Portmore’s population was 93,806 with an annual rate of growth of 19.5%, much higher than Jamaica’s annual rate of growth. By 2000, the population was estimated at 221, 851 in some 52 neighbourhoods. The population was relatively young with 72% of the males and 85% of the females less than 40 years old.

The NRCA’s Draft Environmental Policy Framework Document for Port Royal (May 1998), estimated the town’s population to be 1,700. This varied from the more conservative projection given by the Statistical Institute of Jamaica (STATIN). STATIN, using the annual growth rate of 0.8% for the intercensal period 1970-1991 estimated the population in 2000 at 1,234. This represented a small increase over the 1991 population of 1,127.

4.4.2    Employment, Distribution of Income, Goods and Services

At the time of this study, The labour force for the City of Kingston was 108,700, 85% employed and 15% unemployed. Agriculture accounted for 23% while the service industry (business and personal services, trading, communication and public utilities) accounted for almost 50% of the employed labour force. Mining accounted for less than 2%. Males accounted for more than 70% of the employed labour force.  The major industrial sectors, agriculture, manufacturing and construction were areas where males were traditionally dominant.  The average income per household was $2300-$3200 per week. Approximately 24.5% of the heads of households earned between $2000 and $3000, 12.9 percent each earned $1000-$2000, and less than 20% earned over $6000 per week.

Most of the population of Portmore worked in Kingston and St. Andrew. Many were young professionals in the middle income stream. Employment opportunities within Portmore were basically in the service sector – restaurants, night spots and roadside vending.

Employment opportunities in Port Royal were limited given the lack of industrial development and the low level of skills. Notwithstanding, 66% of the population worked within Port Royal, and others in Kingston or further afield (Database Marketing Services, 1997). The level of unemployment in Port Royal in the age group 14-65 was estimated at 24.0%, a figure significantly higher than the national average of 16.3% (STATIN, 1996). More than 70% of the unemployed were in the 15-39 age group, which indicated a pool of young people who were not gainfully occupied. This had implications for future employment opportunities. Outside of a few restauranteurs and bar owners, fishermen comprised the bulk of the working segment of the population. Port Royalists hold on to a ‘fishing’ tradition with great reverence, but unfortunately, it is an inadequate means of livelihood for the general populace. [1]

Along the Causeway, fishing was the main trade of the household head, followed by fish vending, higglering and skilled trade, with less than one percent being shopkeepers. There were 68 fish vendors in Helsinki Village, 12 in Pigeon Shoot and 2 in Port Henderson (total of 82 vendors).  Of the 68 fish vendors in Helsinki Village 42 (61.76%) were also dwellers.  The rest of the vendors resided elsewhere.  All of the vendors at Pigeon Shoot resided at Pigeon Shoot.  On average, a vendor received between 4 to15 customers per day, earning a net of $250 to $800. [2]

4.4.3    Merchandise Trade and Transhipment

The main point of handling, processing, entry and exit of goods is through the Kingston Transhipment Port (KTP), managed by the PAJ. In 1998 the value of Jamaica’s total merchandise trade (exports and imports) was US$4,323.3m of which the total value of operations undertaken within the three Free Zones was US$270.1m. The major obstacles facing the export of items from the Free Zones were rising operational costs, security concerns and the frequent contamination of containers for exports. Bunker supplies and other items procured in Jamaican ports by foreign carriers were valued at US$27m in 1998, a decline by US$2.3m from 1997 due to a contraction in the value of fuel purchased by foreign carriers. Some 60% of all goods were traded with the USA, Canada or the UK, Jamaica’s main trading partners. Within CARICOM, Jamaica’s main trading partners were Trinidad and Tobago followed by Guyana.

The KTP commenced operation in 1975 with 2 gantry cranes, 640 m of berthing, 40 acres (16ha) of paved container storage area, at an initial capital investment of US$14m. By 1990, the port was operating with 5 modern ship to shore cranes, 36 ha paved container storage area, and a capacity of 400,000 TEU’s. [3] However by 1994, the KTP began to experience severe logistical and capacity constraints and was forced to expand the Gordon Cay (South Terminal) at a cost of US$120m. The expansion was completed in 1996/7 and included an additional 610metres of berth, 5 new state of the art Post Panamax ship-to-store gantry cranes, 18 straddle carriers, 43 acres (17.4metres) of paved terminal area and 2 harbour tugs. Added to what existed before, the combined result was 800,000 TEU’s comprising 1,250 metres of berth, 54 ha paved yard, 10 ship-to-store gantry cranes, 38 medium span straddle carriers, 446 reefer plugs. As a result of the expansion, container throughput increased from 51,000 TEU’s (1975) to 577,000 TEU’s in 1998, an annualized growth rate of 11.7%. Transhipment activities account for some 82% of total throughput. [4]

4.4.4    Fisheries

Fishing activities centre around six major known fish landing sites: Rae Town, Greenwich Town, Port Royal, Hunts Bay at Causeway, Harbour Head and Port Henderson. All, excepting Port Henderson, base their major landings within the Greater Kingston Harbour area.  At the time of this study, more than 1000 full and part time fishermen with about 200 boats operated from the fishing beaches. About 71.4% owned their boats and employed at least 1-2 persons on the boat, 15% were actively involved in selling fish while 28.6% were also involved in vending.  At least 50 metric tons of sprats and herrings per annum used large gill nets (Harvey, 1986; Goodbody, 1986). Also, taken were (small) quantities of maccabacks or mojarras, silversides or white fry, mackerels and kingfish, various jacks, barracudas, and several other groups of lesser commercial importance such as houndfish, snook and tarpon. There was a very small but apparently successful beach seine fishery along the Palisadoes peninsula whose catch consisted mainly of sprats, herrings, maccabacks, and sea bream, with smaller quantities of other species.

Fishing and its spinoff industries are the main forms of economic activity for the majority of people in Port Royal. At the time of this study, the average price obtained for their catch varied from $100-110 per pound depending on the species. A normal catch comprised parrot, jack, doctor, snapper and shrimp and ranged from 20lbs to 80lbs per day, some of the catch was used for household consumption.   The average weekly income was $5,757 with a high of $20,000 and a low of $500. White fry and anchovies formed an important part in the provision of bait for Port Royal hook-and-line fishery. Molluscs such as the mangrove oyster and the false or flat oyster were taken from the prop roots of the red mangroves near Port Royal and formed the basis of a very small, but vibrant “oyster fishery" (Siung, 1976). The harvest was mainly sold in Kingston and on Hellshire beaches by roving vendors. The popularity of "oysters" collected from the Port Royal mangroves helped to inspire the formation of the U.W.I./I.D.R.C. Oyster Culture Project which attempted to promote raft-type oyster culture around the island in the 1980s.

An early assessment of shrimping showed that Kingston Harbour had some potential for marine shrimps (Iversen & Munro, 1969), however, during the 1980s, attempts of shrimp trawling using otter trawls deployed from decked vessels, met with limited success and was therefore short-lived. Shrimps mainly originating from the western portion of Hunts Bay provided significant earnings for fishers operating from the Causeway area. Push and shove nets were used in the shallows by these fishers, along with small, modified bottom trawls pulled by canoes over the deeper waters. During the two annual rainy seasons, significantly increased shrimp catches were reported (Galbraith, 1997). The dominant species was the pink-spotted shrimp. Occasionally (since 1995 to the present), dolphins have been observed in the outer harbour waters, near Port Royal.  Such sightings may be an indicator of improved water quality in the harbour.

At the time of this study, Port Henderson was a large and growing fishing beach and the centre of a relatively new SCUBA-based lobster and conch fishery on the south shelf around Old Harbour. It came into existence during 1993/94 when considerable quantities of forfeited SCUBA gear from seized illegal Honduran offshore lobster and conch fishing vessels became available.

Despite the reduced productivity of the harbour fishery, the harbour played a significant support role for fishing in the Kingston area.  The estimated present value of fish yield was calculated at J$210,544,990.00 or US$6.0m per year, approximately one half of what it was during the 1970s when there were twelve fishing beaches and over 2,000 fishermen operating in the harbour. [5]

4.4.5    Education

More than 18% of the households within the SIA area had at least one child in primary school, 11% had at least two children in primary school, while 4% had at least three children in primary school. Similarly, 18% of the households had at least one adolescent in secondary school. Overall, approximately 97% of the children were enrolled in primary schools.

4.4.6    Health

The population was a relatively healthy one. The most prevalent health issue was related to colds and fever - 13.9% of those interviewed indicated that they had either colds and/or fever within the past year. Of concern, however, was the relative absence and condition of sanitary facilities along the fishing beaches that pose public health and environmental problems. 

4.4.7    Housing

The majority of houses within the SIA area and the sphere of influence of the Kingston Harbour were made from block and steel outer walls (91.3%), zinc (80%) and concrete (17.5%) roofs, with tiled (86.4%), concrete (9.7% or wooden floors (2.9%). Approximately 64.1% of all properties surveyed were single family dwellings, 9.7% were two family dwellings while 13.6 % were occupied by more than three families. The average number of bedrooms per house was 3.98, with the smallest house being a studio (quad) and largest having 11 bedrooms. Roughly 24% of all dwellings surveyed had 4 bedrooms while 22% had 3 bedrooms. More than 51% percent of those dwellings were occupied by their owners, 42.7% of whom also indicated that they possessed titles. Approximately 33 % were rentals, 11.7% were family properties, and 3.9% were occupied by squatters. Roughly 42% of the dwellings surveyed had pit latrines, 30% had soakaways, and 22.3% had septic tanks. The majority of dwellings (98%) had piped water. The majority of dwellings had access to electricity from the Jamaica Public Service and many had telephones. In general the dwellings in proximity to the fishing beaches with the exception of Port Royal were substandard, especially fishing sheds which were also used as dwellings in Rae Town, Greenwich Town and the Causeway. Many of those dwellings were informal, without basic amenities.

4.4.8    Solid Waste Disposal

Household waste (99%) in Kingston was usually trucked away once per week by the Metropolitan Parks and Markets. In fact, most households indicated that they also burned garbage in addition to it being trucked away. There was no organized system of garbage disposal in the vicinity of the Causeway, and Greenwich Town. Overall, 73.4% of all garbage was “dumped.” A similar trend was observed for sewage. Approximately 93.4% of the dwellers in Helsinki Village use the sea/bay compared to 30.8% in Port Henderson. Sixty nine percent of the dwellings in Port Henderson had pit latrines. The high level of sewage and solid waste being disposed directly into the sea/bay was a major pollutant and cause for concern. There were various sewage systems at Port Royal, including septic tanks, tile fields, soak-away and pits. Sewage from the central Brotherhood housing area went into 5 septic tanks, the overflow from which entered an open drain to the west, beside the wall of the Naval Hospital,  and discharged into Port Royal Harbour.

That situation was unacceptable for human health and exacerbated pollution in Kingston Harbour. [6]

4.4.9    Recreation     

In the 1960's, Kingston Harbour was often considered one of the most intensively used recreational areas in Jamaica supporting activities such as swimming, skiing, boating, line fishing, snorkeling and sunbathing.  At the time of this study, most of those activities had since ceased except for limited boating and beach use. The Harbour no longer served as a prime recreational outlet. The Port Royal Cays were popular recreation spots, and were overcrowded on public holidays and weekends. Transportation to the Cays was via boats, operated by local boatmen or fishermen supplementing their income.  The system was not regulated and deemed unsafe as some of the boats do not carry safety gear. Recently, efforts were being made to ensure that all the boats carry life jackets and were not overloaded.

4.4.10  Community Fabric/Cohesion

At the time of this study, several Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) were active in the KMA and Port Royal and were major stakeholders. The Port Royal Environmental Management Trust (PREMT) had a board of 20 and a growing membership of close to 100 persons. The Trust had been successful in fostering a greater sense of community cohesion among residents especially in the areas of environmental protection and preservation. The Friends of Port Royal, a fund-raising organization, was launched in 1987 and was heavily supported by persons residing outside of Port Royal. There were also several sports and church groups. The Jamaica Fishing Cooperative Society served as the umbrella agency for the fishing cooperatives. Fishing Cooperatives exist at Port Royal, Greenwich Town, and Rae Town. Although the cooperative is in the process of being formally established at Hunts Bay - Causeway, the group is already active in the community. 

4.4.11  Cultural/Historic Properties

Port Royal’s rich legacy as the most important 17^th Century English Town in the Caribbean, historical buildings, archaeological treasures and monuments stand as stark reminders of a city still haunted by its past when much of it was destroyed and sunk during the 1692 earthquake. Twenty acres of land sank 10 feet below the present water level, while 13 acres slid 35 feet under the water. Three of the six forts were destroyed and a fourth was severely damaged. [7] Disasters and destruction continued with several more earthquakes and hurricanes thereafter, and the port sunk into an abyss, reminded of the past by its remaining structures - the dockyard and garrison. [8] The history of Port Royal is seen as a significant resource with implications for its further development as proposed under the Port Royal Heritage Tourism Project, 1998.

The history of Portmore and Hellshire also dates back to the 16^th Century when it was believed that the Arawaks first settled there after migrating from the White Marl Village. The existence of a petroglpyh cave site, Two Sisters’ Caves, located in the Hellshire Hills suggested that some of those settlements were permanent. Fort Augusta, the only female prison in Jamaica, adds to the historic significance of Portmore. Located off the Port Henderson main road, Fort Augusta was constructed in the mid-eighteenth century as a major fortification on the western side of the Harbour. Its architecture reflects the Spanish influence on the island.

4.4.12              Land Use

4.4.12.1           Land Use within 0.5km

The Town and Country Planning Authority (TCPA) formulates and coordinates strategic plans for area development in the form of Development Orders consistent with the Town and Country Act (1975). The project site is located within the Kingston Harbour, with existing and designated uses consistent with harbour and port related activities; specifically as “existing ship channel.”

One of the options recommended in the Feasibility Study for the disposal of dredged material from the ship channel was to place it on the southeastern edge of Hunts Bay and to develop that reclaimed land as a container storage terminal for use by the PAJ. The proposed site comprises a small area of “dry mangroves”designated “conservation” by the Kingston and St. Andrew Development Order. The designated and existing land use of abutting lands is “industrial.”

4.4.12.2           Land Use within the larger SIA Project Area

As the capital city, Kingston is the economic, cultural and administrative hub of the island. It is the most densely populated, commercialized and industrialized city in Jamaica and the “primate” centre for transportation, transhipment and telecommunications. Land use categories include residential, commercial, industrial and manufacturing, public open space, institutional, recreational and mixed-uses which were reflected in over 300 years of growth and various cycles of development. Functional areas include the Central Business District, mid-Kingston zone which comprises the business and commercial districts of New Kingston and Cross Roads, and uptown which comprises the commercial and retail centre of Half-Way-Tree; the residential areas of Constant Spring, and suburban residential areas which extends into the surrounding hills. The Kingston Waterfront and industrial zone including the Free Zone are part of the landward extension of the Kingston Harbour. The Waterfront houses the Bank of Jamaica, International Seabed Authority, Kingston Mall and many professional offices and institutions including the Port Authority of Jamaica.

Port Royal is located on some 30 acres of land at the tip of the Palisadoes.  It has views of Kingston Harbour to the north, the Hellshire Hills to the west and of the open sea and cays to the south. Land-use is largely a reflection of the town’s evolution and history and comprises a mixture of historic buildings: Fort Charles, St. Peter’s Church, the Old Gaol, the Naval Hospital, Old Naval Dockyard, old streets and walls, gun batteries, residences, bars, restaurants, the Jamaica Defense Force Coast Guard (HMJS Cagway), University of the West Indies Port Royal Marine Laboratory, Morgan Harbour marina and Hotel, a fire station as well as a football pitch, parade ground and a small, dilapidated ferry pier. At the time of this study, a small squatter settlement was located adjacent to the police station. The residents were mainly fishermen who settled there some 10 years ago.

Portmore (including Hellshire communities) is located to the north and west of the Kingston Harbour, about 11km from the downtown Kingston’s commercial centre and ocean port. Land uses are primarily residential, commercial and institutional. Portmore is primarily a dormitory town with complementary commercial uses such as shopping centres. The communities of Helsinki Village, Hunts Bay at Causeway, and Pigeon Shoot are a combination of illegal settlements, fishing communities and related activities such as fish vending.